What The Dsm Attempts To Do Psychology Essay

What The Dsm Attempts To Do Psychology Essay DSM-IV is a classification of mental disorders that was developed for use in clinical, educational, and research settings. American Psychiatric Association, DSM-IV-TR, 2000 What the DSM attempts to do is have specific criteria for specific disorders, but at the same time, not have the manual be used in a cookbook fashion. Meaning that the specific diagnostic criteria in the DSM are meant to serve as guidelines concurrently with clinical judgment. As we all know, each disorder included in the DSM has a set of diagnostic criteria that signify what symptoms must be present in order to meet the criteria for a diagnosis. Conversely, there are some disorders where there are symptoms that must not be present in order for an individual to be eligible for the diagnosis. A strong point of this particular set-up of the DSM manual makes finding the disorder and its diagnostic criteria easier because of its conciseness. The use of the DSM diagnostic criteria to diagnose has been shown to increase diagnostic reliability (Mezzich, 2002). As noted above, the DSM-IV is a manual that helps outline mental disorders. A major strength is that healthcare professionals such as physicians, psychologist, psychiatrists, and others combined their resources and knowledge to create a universal manual (Well in the US anyways) (Speigel, January 3, 2005). Also, the DSM is used for appropriate coding for billing and insurance purposes which, for most psychologists, is imperative in order to receive reimbursement for treatment. Another strength of the DSM is that it allows researchers to gather a group of patients who meet the described criteria for the disorder, try different treatments, and compare the results. For example, a percentage of patients with social phobia might be helped by placebo, and if a greater number will be helped by a psycholeptic, or psychotherapy, or whatever the treatment is in their design, then one of these treatments can be found valuable. This is important because the idea of evidence based treatment appeal s to the general public, to the field, and is just common sense. Therefore, it is known that empirical data is more useful than untested theories and endless debates that are not proven by research. One weakness that I have found is the reoccurrence of including the social effects of disorders in the criteria by which the same disorders are identified (Widiger Sankis, 2000). It has been argued that when a person meets or exceeds the criteria for a disorder, the DSM does not satisfactorily take into account the context in which a person is living, and to what degree there is a disorder of an individual versus a psychological response to their negative environment (Chodoff, 2005). Therefore, should someone who is in a very poor living situation (emotional or physical abuse, in poverty, ect) these may be the sole factor for some their symptoms, so should it still be assessed in the criteria? Sometimes, an individuals quantity of impairment is often not correlated with symptom counts, and can stem from various individual and social factors, the DSMs standard of distress or disability can often produce false positives (Spitzer R.L., Wakefield J.C., 1999). However, the reality still is that some individuals who dont meet all the symptom criteria may still experience similar suffering or dysfunction in their life. The DSM-IV is practically known as a categorical classification system. The categories are models, and a patient with a high relation to the model is said to have that disorder. The DSM-IV (2000) states, à ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"there is no assumption each category of mental disorder is a completely discrete entity with absolute boundariesà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ã‚  At the same time, unique, mild, or non-criterion symptoms are not given any importance in the diagnosis (Maser, JD., Patterson, T., 2002). On the other hand, qualifiers are sometimes used when explaining the level of disorder; for example: mild, moderate or severe forms. For many the disorders, symptoms must be adequate to cause à ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"clinically significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas of functioning. (APA, DSM-IV-TR, 2000) It has been said that ever since the DSM was created, it has been argued that its system of classification makes indiscrete categ orical distinctions between disorders, and uses somewhat random cut-offs between normal and abnormal (Widiger Coker, 2003, p. 3). I agree that the cut-offs seem a bit arbitrary, and though it is not always voiced, my professors seem to silently have the same opinion. It has been argued that rather than using a categorical approach, a fully dimensional or continuum approach may enhanced the diagnosis people and make it more individualized. (Dalal P.K., Sivakumar T., (2009). What I feel would make the next version DSM superior comes from a suggestion by Dr. Kraemer at the American Psychiatric Association 2007 Annual Meeting, in San Diego, California. (Busko, June 14, 2007) She stated that the purpose of a diagnostic system of mental health disorders, such as the DSM, is not to say what is normal or acceptable but to describe the presentation of a person who comes to get clinical help. The point being made is when a healthcare professional uses the DSM they have to answer this question,Does the patient fit this mental disorder category? Right now, there are only 2 options: Yes or No, which makes the DSM very categorical. However, a dimensional diagnosis, would give us 3 or more potential values that can be ordered. An example, provided by Dr. Kraemer was: While I think that having more than a binary option is a good idea, I am not sure about this Absolutely Sure or Unsure categorization that is presented. Yes, the diagnostic classification should lead to a diagnosis that is reliable and valid, but it should also trust in the professionals life experiences and knowledge in determining how any one disorder is presented in an individual. At the same time, I am cautious about having a classification system that starts running into subclinical diagnosis. I feel that this would lead into everyone leaving a psychologists or psychiatrists office with a disorder. One side note I would like to add, is that as it has been presented by the APA, the DSM-5 is leaning towards making Aspergers Syndrome a combined disorder with Autism Spectrum Disorder. As a person who has a brother with Aspeger and having worked with the general Autistic community, I feel abhorred that such a thing would be considered. They are similar, but not the same thing. Especi ally when we are discussing an individuals ability to live independently and function in their community. For me, this would be like combining Schizoid personality disorder and Schizotypal personality disorder. Well, I will just stop my rambling for now. Hello Ms. XD, I hope you are doing well. After our evaluation and my consultation with my supervisor, we have determined that you have Panic Disorder with Agoraphobia. Within Panic Disorder, you can have panic attacks. A panic attack can described as an event of very intense fear or uneasiness that comes on rather quickly. People can experience Panic Disorder in different ways, but some of the symptoms are: chest pain, feeling like you are choking, a feeling like you might be dying, feeling like you may have not control of your emotions. You can also have hot flashes, chills, nausea, numbness, shortness of breath, sweating. fast heartbeat, or you may start shaking. Once again, these symptoms can start all of a sudden and usually gets more intense as time goes on, but these feelings usually peak within 10 minutes. You also have Agoraphobia along with your Panic Disorder. This means that you may have a strong fear of being in a difficult or embarrassing situation that you cannot escape from. Some people who have severe agoraphobia may not want leave home. There may be certain locations or situations that may make you concerned that you will have a panic attack. These feelings can have a big impact on your social, work, or educational life. It may make it difficult for you to be around others because you may be concerned that you will have another panic attack. Panic Disorder with Agoraphobia is one of the most common anxiety disorders. Approximately 1-2% of the general public have this disorder. Panic Disorder with Agoraphobia can start at anytime during someones life, but it usually starts in adolescence and mid 30s. It is rare to have Panic Disorder with Agoraphobia over the age of 45. So you fit the within common age range of occurrence. Also, with Panic Disorder with Agoraphobia, females are 3 times more likely than males to have it. If someone in your immediate family also has this disorder, you are 8 times more likely to get it. Panic Disorder with Agoraphobia is generally considered chronic. This means that it is not likely to go away in the near future. However, the severity can go from very low to very high while you have Panic Disorder with Agoraphobia. You may eventually stop having panic attacks, but it is common to still have the symptoms of agoraphobia. There are many reasons on how Panic Disorder with Agoraphobia happens, but there is no one direct cause. Some think there is only a genetic reason why this happens. That means that it is in your genes that were transferred on from your parents. It is also believed that panic disorder may be a learned behavioral response to stressful situations. This means that you may have learned at some point during your life that, maybe unconsciously, it was okay for you to react in a certain way and that is what has lead you to have panic attacks. It is also thought that some peoples brains are wired in a way that makes it easier and more common for them to have a panic attack. These are all possibly reasons why you have Panic Disorder with Agoraphobia, but the important thing now is to look into what the best way to treat it. There are many different options. For medications, there are a variety to choose from, but the most common medicine to use is called an SSRI. Some medicines that you have h eard of before, such as Prozac and Zoloft, are SSRIs. You have about a 60% chance of being panic attack free if you stick with your meds. However, if you dont, it is very likely that you will have more panic attacks. Another choice is using a specific kind of psychotherapy called Cognitive Behavioral Therapy. CBT is a type of therapy that helps you focus on how you think about things and how you behave. Within CBT is something called Panic Control Treatment. This would meant that you would experience the symptoms of a panic attack in a safe environment. Along with this you would learn deep breathing and relaxation. I highly recommend that you go with this therapy. Therapy and medicine can be combined, but that is up to your physician or psychiatrist to decide. Ms. XD, I hope the best for you and please let me know you if you have an issues or concerns.

Angelina Jolie – history

ARGUMENT Angelina Jolie, even the name has a certain rhythm to it. Love or hate her, you cannot be indifferent about her. To say she is a goddess is stating the obvious. Has there ever been a more talked about woman since Princess Diana? It is hard to believe that she only just turned 38, she has achieved in those years what most people will never achieve if they lived to be 100 years. There is no question that Angelina is a trailblazer, always a leader and never a follower.Contrary to opinions that the media has shown over time, she is not afraid to speak and live honestly. The media has created an image of an Angelina that bears no resemblance to who she is, the tabloids especially have turned her life into a soap opera and creating drama where none exists. The tabloids have been especially vicious in their relentless attack on this woman. I ask myself why? What is it about this woman that so threaten other women. As one columnist so succinctly put it, â€Å"Angelina does not make us feel good about ourself. This is a woman who at the age of 26 adopted a child while most of her peers have been parroting to the media about wanting to be a mother, Jolie doesn’t just talk the talk, she walks the walk. Yes adoption has been going on long before she adopted, but she made it cool and acceptable. She has immersed herself in her humanitarian work, earning her kudos and respect from the experts in the field, she donates one third of her income to so many different charitable organizations around the world. Not only does she give money, she gives her time and her heart.It is a pilot. In my opinion, not many actresses can be pilots. Most insecure, self absorbed people cannot relate to her because she is not a train wreck. People can look at the train wrecks that are other women and feel sorry for them and happily say to themselves:’Thank God my life is not that bad, thank God I am a better mother†, but that cannot be said about Jolie. She is a wonde rful mother, a wonderful and loving partner, daughter and sister. The media tries to portray an image of a cold and controlling woman, but yet gain the facts do not bear that out. Everybody that has ever met her always say how sweet and down to earth she is, even Brad Pitt, poor man, did not know what hit him when he met her because the Angelina he met was the real Angelina and not the version created by the media. Angelina is that rare actress that is taken serious both in Hollywood and Washington DC. The media try to create a caricature of her authentic self in an effort assure their readers that one person cannot have it all.At this point, she and Brad Pitt have baffled the tabloid and fiction writers who proclaimed that this union will not last more than six months, here they are going into their third year with four children and more being planned for. To read some of the blogs with the bitter women claiming they are over Brangelina, and yet everywhere they show up, the crowd s well, applauding them. Maybe the tabloids need to get with the program that more people want this couple to succeed.We are constantly told she was a wild child or all the crazy stuff she did seven to ten years ago with her ex husband, funny nobody says anything about BBT’s behavior from back then considering that he was old enough to be her father. Drew Barrymore was a wild child doing drugs and clubbing at the tender age of 10, and let us not forget about Johnny Depp trashing hotel rooms, but of course they are not Angelina Jolie and there is always one rule for her and a different one for everyone else.Angelina is an enigmatic figure, very intelligent, very passionate and highly opinionated, I can’t say I blame Brad for falling in love with this gem of a woman. Her beauty shines from within. The tabloids have been throwing everything they can at her right now, hoping that they can break her, but my gut feeling is that seeing what she has seen in the refugee camps and the war torn countries she has visited, she has a better perspective in life, she is able to see the bigger picture and that is why her detractors will never get to her because she is on a much higher plane.I have a feeling that we will still be talking about this woman 50 years from now, long after the pity party has ended and the fake girl next door has been exposed for the fraud that she is. In the mean time, Angelina will continue to live her life with such poise, class and dignity. She has inspired people the world over by choosing a purpose driven life over a narcissistic and self absorbed one, her critics could learn a thing or two about making the world a little better instead of polluting it with their nastiness and ugly behavior. General OverviewAngelina Jolie first became aware of the world wide humanitarian crisis while filming Tomb Raider in Colombia. This made her turn to the office of the United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR). Her quest was to request t he agency to mandate her involvement in the protection and care for the refugees (Bruce, 2011). Jolie has been involved in the missionary work since 2001. She moved and met refugees and internally displace person in over 20 countries. The countries include: Tanzania, Sierra Leone, Thailand and many more. The most recent was when she traveled to Haiti to console and help earthquake victims (Apostolina, 2006).The ‘Jolie-Pitt Foundation’ was dedicated to the eradication of extreme rural poverty as well as protecting natural resources. This foundation provides â€Å"Doctors Without Borders† which is an international organization made up of doctors and nurses. The organization is mandated to help persons whose lives are threatened by violence. Other threats that people may face prompting the work of â€Å"Doctors Without Limits† is neglect, catastrophes, epidemics and many more. This is a non-profit making organization which is devoted to working with children and other vulnerable people (Apostolina, 2006).Angelina Jolie has been involved in helping children all over her country as well as in other countries globally. She has for many times been among the first to respond to humanitarian crisis whenever children are involved and emergencies of any kind. One of her commitments is the involvement in supporting SOS children’s Villages (GaneshaSpeak, 2010). Her commitment is to ensure that right decisions are made in regard to the welfare of orphaned children. This year, Jolie has been involved in charity work with children in Haiti, as well as refugees in South America.Flood victims have also been rescued from wars and floods. Victims of floods in Pakistan have also been helped by Jolie through her foundation. Most of these children are survivors of war. Angela Jolie coordinates volunteers as well as educational activities that are essential for refugees programs (Apostolina, 2006). Angela Jolie’s program is aimed at rehabilita ting children from streets as well as those who survived war but lost their parents or guardians (Tsaliki, 2011). The Program is organized in a manner that it has an after-school program as well as ongoing community events that help in raising funds.Such actions include car washes and group meals. The program for Doctor Without Limits works in at least 24 war-torn countries all over the world. It has been recognized for the hard work in fostering diversity, tolerance and at the same time enhancing community building. Jolie has done this work among the refugees together with local citizens plus the neighborhood (Puchta, 2008). Jolie’s Missions with UNHCR Angela Jolie conducts missions with UNHCR to help people living in harsh conditions. Her main concern has been the living standards of children that are vulnerable because of displacement.She has made people in need, specifically children, her heroes (Pelteret, 2010). The harsh living conditions have made children vulnerable p rompting the help of Jolie and many others. Jolie has gone ahead to create children’s charity aimed at helping children in the streets, orphaned children as a result of war, famine or natural calamities. Jolie’s children charity is a child-based charity center. The organization exists with an aim of advancing the rights of children. Children benefiting from this program are allowed to enjoy their rights of getting relevant education and basic health.In addition, they are taken through rehabilitation from the effect of conflict and trauma they experience in their war-tone countries or homes (Hallenbenk-Huber, 2010). In order to achieve her goals, Jolie has been instrumental in recruiting and training established therapist who are responsible in treatment of trauma. Children are worst affected by trauma (Hallenbenk-Huber, 2010). Some other people, like adolescents also need this professional care. The trained and established therapists are then released to go out and tra in the local community on how to help children overcome trauma.The professionals are recruited and trained by Doctors Without Limits. They also train and help in the management of post traumatic stress disorders. Jolie has taken her time and resources in ensuring that local organizations are involved in training children as well as their care givers on adoption to a new life (Hallenbenk-Huber, 2010). Jolie has for many years been involved in missions around the world meeting refugees as well as the internally displace persons. Her main accomplishment has been to create awareness of the predicament of these refugees.Jolie believes that refugees need to be recommended for having survived the most difficult situations and still strong to face new dimensions of life (Bruce, 2011). Her biggest aim has been to pay visits to what she terms as ‘forgotten emergencies. ’ These are crisis that media attention has shifted away from, or other humanitarian organizations have failed t o recognize. Jolie is remembered for her commitment and attention to refugees of war tone countries in Africa. She is also commended for not fearing having to travel to countries or areas that are at war.For instance, Jolie visited Darfur region in Sudan when it was at war in the year 2004. In addition, she visited Chad during its Civil war and Iraq during the Gulf war. Therefore, Jolie shows she has had her commitment in helping victims or war and refugees (Bruce, 2011). Furthermore, Jolie has been using her public profile in making her humanitarian campaigns. She has been promoting humanitarian causes using the media. In addition, she got involved in promoting humanitarian causes on a political level. In several occasions, Jolie has been involved in the celebration of World Refugee Day in Washington, D.C. Apart from these; Jolie has also lobbied for humanitarian aid in the United States meeting with members of congress petitioning their support in this field. Humanitarian Foundati ons under Angelina Jolie Apart from â€Å"Doctors Without Limits†, Jolie has established other charitable organizations. The Maddox Jolie-Pitt Foundation was dedicated to both community development and environmental conservation in Cambodia. Jolie has also taken part in the establishment of Maddox Chivan Children’s Center in partnership with the ‘Global Health Committee’.The center is a children’s day care facility for children affected and afflicted by HIV in the capital of Cambodia (Bruce, 2011). In addition, she was also involved in the establishment of Jolie-Pitt foundation aimed at rehabilitating and helping children attain education. Children recruited into this facility are victims of both natural or man made humanitarian disasters. Apart from these, Jolie has also partnered with Microsoft Corporation in the establishment of ‘Kids in Need of Defense’. The program provides to children free legal council to unaccompanied immigrant children in the United States (Apostolina, 2006).Angelina Jolie has also taken part in the rehabilitation of children of the streets and street families. Her foundations have come up with programs that employ personnel who work through out the night looking for vulnerable children. They walk through out the streets providing children of the streets with food and clothing. In addition, Jolie has also initiated programs that are instrumental in the provision of medicine and mobile health facilities to children in the streets and countries at war. Furthermore, these children are encouraged to join schools (Hallenbenk-Huber, 2010).The foundation through the management of Jolie’s partnership with other aid agencies provides these children with school materials. This is a way that Jolie is using to help vulnerable children in the streets to pursue their education as well as get their daily basic needs. Humanitarian agencies also encourage workers from different foundation establish ed by Jolie to establish personal relationship with the children (Hallenbenk-Huber, 2010). Personal relationship with the children is to help them develop interpersonal relationship and develop a positive attitude.In addition, personal relationship is essential because children will learn how to address the root cause of their vulnerability. Moreover, the foundation workers will also be in a position to know how to start helping the children. Jolie has received world wide recognition for her involvement in Humanitarian work. For instance, in 2003, Jolie was the firs recipient of the Citizen of the World award. The ward was a creation of the United Nations Correspondents Association (GaneshaSpeak, 2011). In addition, the president of Cambodia awarded Jolie citizenship of his country following her committed humanitarian support.Jolie made open her motives for joining the humanitarian field in 2001. Her message was instrumental in the provision of humanitarian aid. Joie said that it wa s unfair to sit and watch as we ignore information regarding the fact that millions of individuals were out suffering. She said how much she wanted to help. She was inspired by the feeling that all are human and we all can have the same feeling at some point (GaneshaSpeak, 2011). In addition, Jolie emphasized the need for justice equality to all aiming at every one having a chance for life. Her inspiration was that everyone would run for help should we be in a needy situation.

What Is an Element Symbol Chemistry Definition

In chemistry, an element symbol usually refers to the one- or two-letter abbreviation for a chemical element, though the term also can be applied to the alchemical symbols. Key Takeaways: Element Symbol Definition An element symbol is a one- or two-letter abbreviation for a chemical element name.When a symbol consists of two letters, the first letter is always capitalized, while the second letter is lowercase.Element symbols also can refer to alchemy symbols for the elements or to the symbols used to describe isotopes. Examples Examples of modern element symbols include H for hydrogen, He for helium, and Ca for calcium. The first letter of an element symbol is capitalized, while the second letter is lowercase. An example of a deprecated element symbol is Cb for columbium, the former name of the element niobium, or Nb. However, some elements retain their old symbols when they change names. For example, Ag is the element symbol for silver, which was once called argentum. Sources Fontani, Marco; Costa, Mariagrazia; and Orna, Mary Virginia. The Lost Elements: The Periodic Tables Shadow Side. Oxford University Press.Leal, Joà £o P. The Forgotten Names of Chemical Elements. Foundations of Science.Wieser, Michael E., et al. Atomic Weights of the Elements 2011. IUPAC Technical Report.

Emotional Intelligence On The Workplace - 1528 Words

Emotional Intelligence in the Workplace When most people think of emotional intelligence (EI), they are unsure about what exactly that phrase means. Is it someone who is very emotional? Someone who is very smart? What is it and why is it important in the workplace? Emotional intelligence is a phrase that encompasses many different traits that a person could have as far as maintaining control in the workplace and also how to read people and different things they may be feeling. Emotional intelligence is important for being aware of someone’s own emotions as well as trying to calm down or excite the people around them. A person who is in any leadership position needs to have an awareness of his/her emotional intelligence as well as how important it can be for day to day functioning within the work environment. This paper will go into the background and history of emotional intelligence, talk about how it can be an important leadership tool in the nursing field, and how I can further improve my leadership skills and growth with emotional intelligence in order to give the reader a further understanding on the topic. Background and definition The term â€Å"emotional intelligence† dates back to 1990 when two psychology professors named John Mayer and Peter Salovey were discussing politics and certain politicians and one of them said to the other â€Å"how can someone so smart be so dumb?†; it was from there that they realized there is more to intelligence than someone’s IQShow MoreRelatedEmotional Intelligence On The Workplace Essay974 Words   |  4 PagesEmotional Intelligence in the Workplace The concept of analyzing people has driven the development of various techniques to identify and define specific traits in an individual. 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Observations indicate that organizations seek the same set of competencies; emotional intelligence, good judgement, integrity, global mindset, resilience and learning agility (Chamorro-Premuzic, 2015). These competencies, are an intrinsic aspect with regard to workplace performance and success in business. Having an in-depth understanding of my skills is important for effective workplace performance. In this portfolio, I examineRead MoreManagement Assignment: Human Intelligence Essay1292 Words   |  6 Pagesconcentrated upon the intelligence of individuals and held the point of view that intelligent people in terms of IQ succeeded more. However, these ideas are continually challenged by the idea of emotional intelligence being key indicators of management performance (cited in Khosravi, Manafi, Hojabri, Aghapour and Gheshmi, 2011, pg 3). Emotional intelligence is ones ability to perceive and regulate other people’s emotions (cited in Sadri, 2012, pg 536). 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Food Safety Essays - 845 Words

Food Safety Training: Importance and Methodologies The CDC estimates that there are approximately 76 million cases of foodborne illness each year. As a food service professional, it is your job to do everything possible to ensure that the food being served is safe. The factors that ensure food safety are personal hygiene, cleaning and sanitizing, food storage, food preparation methods, holding, reheating, and serving. What is appropriate, necessary, and safe with regard to these factors might mean different things to different people making training imperative, and a thorough training program should include each of these aspects. Equally as important as the content of the training, are the training tools and methods used to†¦show more content†¦Classroom training offers an opportunity for activity-based learning. Activity based learning includes information search, guided discussion, role, play, demonstrations, jigsaw design, training videos DVDs, and games. Each of these activities is discussed below. Information s earch involves putting trainees into small groups and giving them a specific question that they will have to research and discuss. Guided discussion involves asking progressive questions to pull on the trainee’s existing knowledge and any gaps in knowledge are filled in by the trainer. In role-play, a script is created and volunteers are asked to act it out; the skit should depict the right way and wrong way to handle a task; the group of trainees is then asked to discuss what transpired during the role-play. The most effective demonstration model is the Tell/Show/Practice model. Using this model, the trainee is shown how to perform a task, told how to perform the task, and then the trainee is asked to perform the task. Jigsaw design is similar to information search in that it requires trainees to group up into small groups to research a topic and then teach about what they learned. 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Strayer Cis500 Assignment 1 Free Essays

1. Compare and contrast the application of information technology (IT) to optimize police departments’ performance to reduce crime versus random patrols of the streets. In recent years, the idea of predictive policing, or the use of statistics and data to make policing decisions, has become widely popular in the United States. We will write a custom essay sample on Strayer Cis500 Assignment 1 or any similar topic only for you Order Now In 1994, the New York City Police Department adopted a law enforcement crime fighting strategy known as COMPSTAT (Computer Statistics). COMPSTAT uses Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to map the locations of where crimes occur, identify â€Å"hotspots†, and map problem areas. COMPSTAT has amassed a wealth of historical crime data. Mathematicians have designed and developed algorithms that run against the historical data to predict future crimes for police departments. The purpose of this paper is to briefly examine predictive policing and how tools such as COMPSTAT allow police departments to respond more efficiently to criminal activity. Using information technology to fight crime by the police officers is becoming increasingly effective in apprehending the crime perpetrators. Predictive policing, or programs such as COMPSTAT, involves using data from disparate sources, analyzing them and then using the results to anticipate, prevent and respond more effectively to future crimes. â€Å"The predictive vision moves law enforcement from focusing on what will happen and how to effectively deploy resources in front of the crime, thereby changing outcomes,† writes Charlie Beck, chief of the Los Angeles Police Department (Predictive Policing: The Future of Law Enforcement, NIJ, 2012). From the early 1800s to the 1980s, patrol and criminal investigation dominated policing. Uniformed police patrolled the streets to prevent crime, to interrupt crimes in progress, and to apprehend criminals. However, research since the 1960s has shown the limits of both patrol and investigation for controlling crime. Patrol officers did not effectively prevent crime by questioning suspects, victims, and witnesses. In the 1990s, the police adopted  predictive policing strategies  in which police initiate action instead of waiting for calls. Patrol remains the backbone of police operations. It consumes most of the resources of police agencies. On patrol, a police officer makes regular circuits or passes through a specific area. Studies of foot patrol indicate that these patrols are costly and do not reduce crime. Because crime is not evenly distributed throughout a community, which means some places need more patrol than others. The tradition of giving each neighborhood an equal amount of patrol wastes police resource, so the tradition of giving each neighborhood an equal amount of patrol just wastes police resources, however, which can make citizens less fearful of crime and improve citizen attitudes toward the police(CliffsNotes. om. ). While predictive police operations focus on the concentration of crime in certain offenders, places, and victims. Predictive operations include using decoys, going undercover, raiding, relying on informants, stopping and frisking suspects, shadowing repeat offenders, policing repeat-complaint locations, and saturating an area with police to maintain order which can be an effective method to prevent crime(CliffsNotes. com. ). 2. Describe how COMPSTAT, as an information system (IS), implements the four (4) basic IS functions: 1. Input, 2. Processing, 3. Output, 4. Feedback. COMPSTAT is the name given to the New York City Police Department’s accountability process and has since been replicated in many other departments. COMPSTAT is a management philosophy or organizational management tool for police departments, roughly equivalent to  Six Sigma  or TQM, and is not a computer system or software package. † (State of CA, 2010). COMPSTAT as an information system implements the four basic IS functions in the following ways: Input Data gathering process which is the building block of COMPSTAT is comprised of information compiled from variety of sources like police incidents, arrest reports, suspect debriefing, telephone calls, and field interview reports. Pushing the data into the Incident Reporting System will help to maintain a database for future reference (Willis et al. , 2003). Processing The collection of data is presented during every COMPSTAT meeting. This would be entered into a database using a data management program like MS Access. This task is performed by the Crime Analysis Unit (CAU). These analysts classify, categorize, aggregate and analyze the data in order to gain a detailed report including many details like date, location, day and other information related to the crime. At this stage they would be able to identify a targeted response that may be the source of concern. This report provides useful identification of crime patterns like the point of entry for a burglary or make and model of a stolen vehicle (Willis et al. , 2003, Pg 48-50). Further by using GIS (Geographic Information Systems) data and spatial analysis geographic hot spots are located and mapped to the data. Output Once the data is processed, it is presented to the department commanders. With available intelligence they should devise a strategy and deploy resources with expertise to tactfully pre-empt a crime situation and follow it up to ensure performance and results were as desired. These are key steps or principles which guide the departments patrol and investigative work: * Accurate and timely intelligence, * Rapid deployment * Effective tactics, and * Relentless follow-up and assessment (William J. Bratton, 1999 pg-15). Feedback The key element of improvement is feedback. As it includes data, any error related to this aspect should be avoided. Consistent and correct data has to be entered into the incident reporting system and database. Accurate report writing should be followed while recording incidents. Extensive data analysis to identify the root cause of crime becomes mandatory. Regular meetings and brainstorming session should be conducted to improve data collection and teams involved should be evaluated. Learning from past mistakes should never be avoided. Continuous aiming at innovation and integration with latest technology to keep the system up to date can provide better results. Periodic assessments of performance and gaps in accomplishing set goals and objectives should be reviewed so that corrective measures can be taken to fill the gaps to meet desired results. 3. Determine how information systems have allowed police departments that implement tools such as COMPSTAT to respond to crime faster. With the implementation of information systems real time access to data has become easier. Identification of hot spots related to crime is possible and problem solving has become proactive instead of reactive. Monitoring of multiple locations and futuristic crime and its patterns can be detected. This allows operations to be carried with fewer resources, and reduced random patrols. Further it provides a platform for administering vast information which enables better decision making and problem solving. By demanding accountability it facilitates team work and police personnel are now working together to accomplish set goals faster thereby reducing crime. 4. Apply the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats analysis (SWOT analysis) on behalf of police departments that intend to implement predictive policing. SWOT Analysis of Predictive Policing SWOT Analysis of Predictive Policing Strengths: The strength of predictive policing is that it allows resources to be used more efficiently because they can be deployed to specific locations in which crimes are likely to occur and for specific types of crimes. In this regard, it is also easier to prevent crime from occurring as opposed to merely responding to it (Goode, 2011). Weaknesses: Predictive policing is often treated as being solely related to the use of computers and data to the detriment of involving front-line police officers in the decision-making process. This can result in police officers feeling both disrespected and unimportant in performing police work (Willis, Mastrofski ; Weisburd, 2003). Opportunities: Predictive policing provides for the opportunity for police departments to reduce criminal activity at a lower cost to taxpayers. Police departments can prevent crime from occurring rather than using limited resources to respond to crimes once they have occurred and hoping responses will deter other criminals (Pearsall, 2010). Threats: The primary threat related to predictive policing is that some police officers, particularly older police officers, are skeptical of the use of statistics and data in place of traditional street patrols. This could result in predictive policing efforts not being carried out in a way that will allow them to be as successful as possible. Conclusion The information contained in this brief paper has shown that with the use of information technology and programs such as COMPSTAT, predictive policing can result in a reduction in crime by predicting where it will occur rather than responding to it once it has occurred. However, predictive policing can have problems if the sole focus is on the use of information technology. Instead, police officers and the general public must be included in the process. Their feedback must be solicited as part of the larger process. Otherwise, they have the ability to derail any reductions in crime and improvements in performance that might be possible from predictive policing. References 1. Goode, E. (2011, August 15). Sending the police before there’s a crime. Retrieved from http://www. nytimes. com/2011/08/us/16police. html 2. Pearsall, B. (2010, May). Predictive policing: The future of law enforcement? National Institute 3. Willis, J. J. , Mastrofski, S. D. , ; Weisburd, D. (2003). Compstat in practice: An in-depth Analysis of three cities. Police Foundation. Retrieved from http://www. policefoundation. org/pdf/compstatinpractice. pdf 4. CliffsNotes. com. Police Strategies. Retrieved April,12th, 2012, from http://www. cliffsnotes. com/study_guide/topicArticleId-10065,articleId-9953. html 5. Bratton, W. J. ; Malinowski, S. W. (2008). Police performance management in practice: Taking COMPSTAT to the next level. Policing, 2(3), 259-265. How to cite Strayer Cis500 Assignment 1, Papers

Jerome Bruner free essay sample

He attended and received his B. A. from Duke University in 1937 and his Ph. D from Harvard University in 1941. As an American psychologist, he has contributed greatly to cognitive psychology and the cognitive learning theory in educational psychology, as well as to history and the general philosophy of education. He was on the faculty in the Department of Psychology at Harvard University from 1952 – 1972. He published his book â€Å"The Process of Education† in 1960. This book influenced many young researchers and led to a great deal of experimentation and a wide range of educational programs. In the early 70’s, he left Harvard University to become a tutor at the University of Oxford up until 1979, after which he returned to Harvard University. Later he joined the New York University of Law, where he became a Senior Researcher (at the age of 93). THEORY Jerome Bruner is one of the founding fathers of Constructivist Theory. Constructivism is an extensive theoretical framework with several perspectives, and Bruners is only one. Bruners hypothetical framework is based on the theme that learners create new ideas or concepts based upon existing knowledge. Learning is an active process. Aspects of the process include selection and transformation of information, decision making, generating hypotheses, and making meaning from information and experiences. Jerome Bruner believes that teachers need: †¢To understand the relationship between motivation and learning; †¢To understand how structure relates to the whole; To learn to form â€Å"global concepts†; †¢ To learn how to build â€Å"coherent patterns† of learning; †¢To understand that facts without meaning are not learned; and †¢To believe that any subject can be taught to any child. (â€Å"Any subject can be taught effectively in some intellectually honest form to any child at any stage of development† (Bruner, 1960, p. 33). Four Key themes emerged in Bruners early work. These were: a)the Structure which refers to relationships among factual elements and techniques. )the Spiral Curriculum which refers to the idea of reiterating basic ideas over and over, building upon them and elaborating on the concepts to the level of full understanding and mastery. Bruner believed that any subject could be taught at any stage of development in a way that fit the childs cognitive abilities. c)intuitive and analytical thinking which Bruner considered should both be rewarded and encouraged. d)motivation for learning which he felt that interest in the subject matter was the best stimulus for learning. Ideally, Jerome Bruner writes, interest in the material to be learned is the best stimulus to learning, rather than such external goals as grades or later competitive advantage (ibid. : 14). The following are the four features of Bruner’s Theory of Instruction. a)Predisposition to learn: This aspect in particular states the experiences which move the learner toward a love of learning in general, or of learning something specifically. Motivational, cultural, and personal factors contribute to this. Bruner accentuated social factors and early teachers’ and parents influence on this. He believed learning and problem solving emerged out of exploration. Part of the task of a teacher is to preserve and guide a childs natural explorations. b)The Structure of Knowledge: In this feature, he believes that it is possible to structure knowledge in such a way that enables the learner to more readily grasp the information. c)Modes of Representation: He believes that children go through three stages of intellectual development or main changes before reaching maturity. These are: the enactive stage; the iconic stage; and the symbolic stage. i)The enactive stage: â€Å"knowledge is stored primarily in the form of motor responses. † (Alexander 2002). In this stage, children learn through the form of motor skills and experimentation by the manipulation of objects in their environment. e. g. a child may see a colourful toy and become fascinated by it, but the said toy only becomes real to the child if the child can see, touch or manipulate it. This stage spans from birth t o eighteen months of age. (ii)The iconic stage: â€Å"knowledge is stored primarily in the form of visual images† (Alexander 2002. In this stage, a child learns through viewing of objects. The individual is able to develop mental images of events. e. g. (iii)The symbolic stage: â€Å"knowledge is stored primarily as words, mathematical symbols, or in other symbol systems† (Alexander 2002). In this stage, the learner develops the capacity to think in abstract terms and uses language or other symbols to represent information. e. g. knowing that x + 2 = 6, therefore the value of x must be 4. Based on this three-stage notion, Bruner recommended that using a combination of concrete, pictorial and then symbolic activities will lead to more effective learning. However, unlike Jean Piaget’s theory, Bruner does not restrict these developmental stages to any specific age group but believes that these can be applied all through life. This example is taken from Bruner (1973): The concept of prime numbers appears to be more readily grasped when the child, through construction, discovers that certain handfuls of beans cannot be laid out in completed rows and columns. Such quantities have either to be laid out in a single file or in an incomplete row-column design in which there is always one extra or one too few to fill the pattern. These patterns, the child learns, happen to be called prime. It is easy for the child to go from this step to the recognition that a multiple table, so called, is a record sheet of quantities in completed multiple rows and columns. Here is factoring, multiplication and primes in a construction that can be visualized. Figure 1 A child would begin at the bottom of the pyramid and eventually escalate to the peak. d)Effective sequencing which suggests that learning takes place in the order of the aforementioned modes of representation. Bruners theories emphasize the significance of categorization in learning. To perceive is to categorize, to conceptualize is to categorize, to learn is to form categories, to make decisions is to categorize. Interpreting information and experiences by similarities and differences is a key concept. (Jerome Bruner) SECTION B Scaffolding can be very useful in the learning process. This is a key derived from Vygotsky’s notion of social learning (Wood, Bruner, Ross, 1976). This is basically the assistance provided by adults or more competent peers in the process of learning. This provides the child with a great deal of support in the earlier stages of learning, and then lessens that support or help when the child becomes more confident and is able to carry out given tasks on its own. Some types of scaffolding are: i) Reciprocal Scaffolding – A teacher in the classroom may use reciprocal scaffolding as a means to help pupils further understand a concept that is taught. This can come in the form of grouping students together (this can be a small group of about three or four pupils). These pupils should also have a diversity of levels whereas they would be able to learn from each other’s knowledge and experience. Assign a task to these pupils and allow them to come up with their own solution to the problem. According to the theory, this method gives the weaker child the opportunity to develop higher-level thinking skills. ii) Contingent Scaffolding – With this type of scaffolding, a teacher may circulate around the classroom giving each pupil the opportunity to converse with him/ her on a one-on-one basis. The teacher would be able to view and question each child’s methods individually and be able to provide constructive feedback. According to the encyclopedia of primary education, (Hayes, 2010) Discovery Learning is an open ended form of problem solving in which the teacher provides an introductory activity or stimulus on a relevant theme or topic to gain the children’s interest, stir their natural curiosity and raise the level of enthusiasm and motivation. One type of discovery learning is: i)Guided Discovery – this is a reflective teaching technique. With guided discovery, a teacher may provide pupils with adequate background information on a specific topic. The pupils are then given the opportunity and much of the responsibility for finding relationships and organizing knowledge. The teacher may ask pupils to discuss familiar topics. The teacher is careful to provide the necessary guidance to ensure that discovery and learning occur. Guided discovery is generally more effective than open discovery learning (Mayer, 2002).